Assignment+2

=Iran =

=Legitimacy (SZ)= = =


 * **Theocracy: a government ruled strictly by religion **
 * **Secularization: the belief that religion that government and religion should be separated (The competing nature of these two ideas is complicated by Iran's developing economy that squarely places it in the global market, but is heavily reliant on one product) Shiism: brand of Islam that distinguishes Iran from its neighbors today **
 * **Revolution of 1979 : a popular uprising centered around Ayatollah Khomeini, the charismatic "union of political and religious interests from ancient days" **

**Historical Legitimacy:**


 * Iranian legitimacy (or lack thereof) can be traced back to the ancient Achemenian Empire.
 * Persian sovereigns were always hereditary military leaders who very much enjoyed the trappings of royalty.
 * The authority of the persian king was supported by a strong military as well as a state-sponsored religion, Zoroastrianism. This helped set the standard for an authoritarian state.
 * From the 7th to 16th centuries, religion helped give the government its "legitimacy." Shiism was established as the state religion in the 16th century by Ismail, the founder of the Safavid Empire. When Ismail established Iran as a Shiite state, he distinguished it as different from all Sunni states around him, a characteristic that still exists today. He gave political legitimacy to the belief that the "Hidden Imam" (the heir to the Iranian throne) but until he did, the rulers of Iran stood in his place as the true heirs of Islam.

==== **Modern-day Legitimacy:**

====
 * Authoritarian leaders played an important role in the 20th century as the Pahlavi shahs ruled from 1925-79.
 * The Revolution of 1979, led by the dynamic Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, was an event that transformed the legitimacy of the state, anchoring it once again in the principles of Shiism.
 * The Revolution of 1979 led to Iran's Constitution of 1979 (more below), which is a highly complex mixture of theocracy and democracy.
 * Over the past few years, the competing ideas of sovereignty of the people vs. divine clerical rule have created a legitimacy crisis in Iran.

**General Principles of the Iranian Constitution establishing and summarizing the basic laws of the Islamic Republic of Iran:**

 * (Please note: this is not a full presentation of the constitution of Iran but a basic summary of its principles; helps highlight legitimacy of country)**

The form of government of Iran is that of an Islamic Republic, endorsed by the people of Iran on the basis of their longstanding belief in the sovereignty of truth and Qur'anic justice, in the referendum of Farwardin 9 and 10 in the year 1358 of the solar Islamic calendar, corresponding to Jamadi al-'Awwal 1 and 2 in the year 1399 of the lunar Islamic calendar (March 29 and 30, 1979], through the affirmative vote of a majority of 98.2% of eligible voters, held after the victorious Islamic Revolution led by the eminent marji' al-taqlid, Ayatullah al-Uzma Imam Khumayni.
 * Article 1**

The Islamic Republic is a system based on belief in the fundementals of Islam and its various teachings and principles:
 * Article 2**

In order to attain the objectives specified in Article 2, the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran has the duty of directing all its resources to the following goals:
 * Article 3**

All civil, penal financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria. This principle applies absolutely and generally to all articles of the Constitution as well as to all other laws and regulations, and the fuqaha' of the Guardian Council are judges in this matter. During the Occultation of the Wali al-Asr (may God hasten his reappearance), the wilayah and leadership of the Ummah devolve upon the just ('adil] and pious [muttaqi] faqih, who is fully aware of the circumstances of his age; courageous, resourceful, and possessed of administrative ability, will assume the responsibilities of this office in accordance with Article 107. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the affairs of the country must be administered on the basis of public opinion expressed by the means of elections, including the election of the President, the representatives of the Islamic Consultative Assembly, and the members of councils, or by means of referenda in matters specified in other articles of this Constitution. In accordance with the command of the Qur'an contained in the verse ("Their affairs are by consultations among them" [42:38]) and ("Consult them in affairs" [3:159]), consultative bodies - such as the Islamic Consultative Assembly, the Provincial Councils, and the City, Region, District, and Village Councils and the likes of them - are the decision-making and administrative organs of the country. The nature of each of these councils, together with the manner of their formation, their jurisdiction, and scope of their duties and functions, is determined by the Constitution and laws derived from it. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, al-'amr bilma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar is a universal and reciprocal duty that must be fulfilled by the people with respect to one another, by the government with respect to the people, and by the people with respect to the government. The conditions, limits, and nature of this duty will be specified by law. (This is in accordance with the Qur'anic verse; "The believers, men and women, are guardians of one another; they enjoin the good and forbid the evil" [9:71]). In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the freedom, independence, unity, and territorial integrity of the country are inseparable from one another, and their preservation is the duty of the government and all individual citizens. No individual, group, or authority, has the right to infringe in the slightest way upon the political, cultural, economic, and military independence or the territorial integrity of Iran under the pretext of exercising freedom. Similarly, no authority has the right to abrogate legitimate freedoms, not even by enacting laws and regulations for that purpose, under the pretext of preserving the independence and territorial integrity of the country. Since the family is the fundamental unit of Islamic society, all laws, regulations, and pertinent programmes must tend to facilitate the formation of a family, ,and to safeguard its sanctity and the stability of family relations on the basis of the law and the ethics of Islam. In accordance with the sacred verse of the Qur'an ("This your community is a single community, and I am your Lord, so worship Me" [21:92]), all Muslims form a single nation, and the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran has the duty of formulating its general policies with a view to cultivating the friendship and unity of all Muslim peoples, and it must constantly strive to bring about the political, economic, and cultural unity of the Islamic world. The official religion of Iran is Islam and the Twelver Ja'fari school [in usual al-Din and fiqh], and this principle will remain eternally immutable. Other Islamic schools, including the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali, and Zaydi, are to be accorded full respect, and their followers are free to act in accordance with their own jurisprudence in performing their religious rites. These schools enjoy official status in matters pertaining to religious education, affairs of personal status (marriage, divorce, inheritance, and wills) and related litigation in courts of law. In regions of the country where Muslims following any one of these schools of fiqh constitute the majority, local regulations, within the bounds of the jurisdiction of local councils, are to be in accordance with the respective school of fiqh, without infringing upon the rights of the followers of other schools. Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian Iranians are the only recognized religious minorities, who, within the limits of the law, are free to perform their religious rites and ceremonies, and to act according to their own canon in matters of personal affairs and religious education. In accordance with the sacred verse; ("God does not forbid you to deal kindly and justly with those who have not fought against you because of your religion and who have not expelled you from your homes" [60:8]), the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran and all Muslims are duty-bound to treat non-Muslims in conformity with ethical norms and the principles of Islamic justice and equity, and to respect their human rights. This principle applies to all who refrain from engaging in conspiracy or activity against Islam and the Islamic Republic of Iran.
 * Article 4**
 * Article 5**
 * Article 6**
 * Article 7**
 * Article 8**
 * Article 9**
 * Article 10**
 * Article 11**
 * Article 12**
 * Article 13**
 * Article 14**

Link to Iranian Constitution:

http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ir00000_.html

Notes about Iranian Constitution:

The document has 40 amendments; the preamble reflects the importance of religion for the legitimacy of the state.

Khomeini's doctrine of **jurist's guardianship** is include with the other "divine principles."


 * Current Events Article**

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/24/world/middleeast/24iran.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=iran%20legitimacy&st=cse

This article details Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's stout defense of his recent "election," an action that has thrown the country up in arms over the past few months. In the article, Ahmadinejad says that "people entrusted me with a large majority" and that the election was "glorious and fully democratic."

Political Traditions (HJ)
The Iranian government's political traditions were heavily influenced by the country's history. Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iran changed completely, overthrowing the elitist monarchy it once had. While most revolutions in history such as ones that occured in Russia, France, and England, the Iranian Revolution was unique in the fact that it resulted Iran to adopt a theocracy. This was the case because the Revolution was caused almost completely by religion in nature. Iran is currently the only country in the world with a theocracy.

From the 7th to 16th centuries, Iran (back then known as Persia) did not have much political unity. The land was conquered by the Arabs, who brought Islam to the area. Three families ruled since 1501 until the revolution: Safavids, Qajars, and Pahlavis. The shahs, the kings of Iran, had a heavy impact in the general political perspectives of the people in three ways. 1) The shah was an absolute ruler. The monarchial government was virtually synonymous to a authoritarian government in nature. 2) He broke the balance between the secular and the religious state by secularizing Iran too much and too fast, certainly from the point of view of the clergy. 3) He had ties to the United States government, which offended Iranian nationalists as well as the clergy. The shah basically created a divide in the political culture. One side supported modernization with closer relationship with the western countries, and the other side supported to defend their tradition, Shiism.

The reigns of three different families each brought gradual changes over the country.

1. Safavids 2. Qajars 3. Pahlavis
 * Converted Iranians to Shiism
 * Shiism is the main state religion, which influences much of Iran's political culture today.
 * It was established in the 16th century by Ismail, who founded the Safavid Empire.
 * 90% of Iranians today are Shiites.
 * Tolerated "People of the Book"
 * The People of the Book were people who had one religion and devoted their lives to holy books.
 * Also tolerated the Sunnis, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians
 * Ruled from Isafahn
 * Relied on local rulers
 * Rulers claimed to be descendants of the 12 Imams
 * Built the foundations for a theocracy
 * Tradition of isolation
 * Authoritarianism
 * Turkish invaders
 * Ruled from Tehran
 * Retained Shiism, but lost hereditary claims to 12 Imams
 * Dominated by other countries
 * Loved luxury, fell into debt
 * Built the foundations for secularism, separation between religious and political leaders
 * Tradition of trade/contact with others
 * Failed to create regimes, which led to the creation of a representative government
 * The influence of Shiism loosened
 * Overthrew a representative government
 * Centralized power in shah
 * Increasing oil income
 * Contact with western countries
 * Secularization
 * Corruption
 * Shahs had too much power and abused it for personal enrichment.

Historical Traditions (SG)
To many contemporary observers, Iran would appear to be a fairly homogenous entity, primarily composed of fervent followers of the Islamic faith and very similar to their neighbors. However, Iran possesses a myriad of cultures and ethnicities, and to understand the nation today one must delve deep into the country's ancient, vast, and storied history. The following is merely a summary of the various periods, dynasties, and eras that would lead to the current Islamic Republic.

**The Achemenian Empire (Persia):**
Early Iran served as the political center of the Achemenian Empire, known by the Greeks then (and the modern world now) as Persia. Existing for over two hundred years, from its founding in the 6th century B.C.E until it was conquered by Alexander the Great, Persia was one of the world's earliest empires, and certainly the largest in its era. Persia was ruled by a series of kings who tended to be military leaders. These kings lived extravagant and lavish life styles, supported by massive tributes from the seemingly endless stretches of lands they ruled over, and their mighty armies. Furthermore, the authority of kings was bolstered by Zoroastrianism, a state sponsored religion. Persia would influence much of Iran's culture, specifically in the areas of language and ethnicity, as many Iranians speak Persian and identify with said ethnicity.

**Islam:**
The collapse of the Persian Empire led to a new dynasty created by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, and the spread of Greek culture throughout the Middle East. This was followed by a series of various rulers, such as the Sassanid Dynasty (226-651 C.E.), but after the 7th century until the 16th century (C.E), Iran was rarely unified for long periods of time. Lacking any form of true long term political unity, many Iranians turned for the first time to religion instead, and specifically to that of Islam, a faith founded by the Prophet Muhammad that still continues to be the uniting fabric of the nation to this day.

//A brief outline of Shiism://

Shortly after the Prophet Muhammad's death, a problem arose in the Islamic hierachy; the prophet did not have an heir. This problem was further exacerbated by the fact that leadership was needed, as the armies of Islam had travelled far and conquered many lands, creating an understandably complex political situation. Two divisions arose as a result, the Sunnis, who wanted a caliph (leader) from their own, while the Shiites believed that the role should passed by hereditry, thus meaning, that Ali, Muhammad's nephew, would come to power. However, Ali was killed, and as a result the Sunni opinion prevailed in most of the Islamic world and would continue to do so, except for Iran.

**The Safavid Empire:**
Currently, ninety percent of Iranians are Shiites (followers of Shiism), a unique distinction for Iran when compared to the primarily Sunni Middle East. This was due to Ismail, the founder of the Safavid Empire being a Shiite. The Safavid established political legitimacy by claming to be appointed by the Imams, (direct descendants of Ali) and essentially ruled in their "absence." As this was the political rhetoric used for almost 300 years of Safavid rule, Shiism eventually became the key religious practice of Iran, and was the main contribution of the Safavids. Other lesser yet enormously important characteristics include a belief in an authoritiarian state in modern Iranian politics. Basically, the government is extremely centralized and embraces a certain overreaching doctrine, usually of a religious or aristocratic nature in the case of Iran. While the Persian empire had similar practices, the Safavids were the first to truly establish in an effective manner.

**The Qajars:**
The Safavids began to decline in the mid-18th century, a new political force arrived in Iran. The Qajars were a group of displaced Turco-Persian tribesman who took over Iran and ousted the old Safavid dynasty, beginning one of their own. They ruled from 1794-1925, and among a myriad of other things, created a separation of religion and politics in the Iranian royal hiearchy. The reason for this action was that unlike previous rulers like the Achemenians or Safavids, the Qajars could not use religion to bolster their credibility as rulers of the islamic nation, and so chose to keep religious leaders away from an place of power. Unfortunately, this dynasty was subject to much foreign interference in the 19th century, especially that of Great Britain and Russia, who exploited the country's vast resources and left its leaders essentially powerless. This caused a great deal of anger amongst the common people of Iran (much of which remains today), directed specifically at the Shahs, a problem further compounded by the enormous corruption that festered throughout the government. This would eventually boil over and lead to Iran's first experiment in a truly substantive democracy.

//Iran's Democracy Part 1 ://
As frustation grew against the Iranian government, many individuals started calling for a revolution. This finally started in a few years into the 20th century, around 1904. A year later, the extremely weak Qajar government was on the verge of total collapse. Realising that a new regime could possibly threathen their material interests, Britain and Russia interfered, with the Russian army arriving by early 1906. Though the rebellion continued until 1911, their resolve was broken when the Russian army thoroughly destroyed their base of operations in 1908. However, though the rebellion was dead, their words for freedom and change were not forgotten and the British forced the reigning Qajar shah to enact a constitution creating a legislature (the Majlis) and modern courts of law. This changes were kept for a few years, but extreme corruption ran rampant and in 1925 a new dynasty, the Pahlavis, were formed by Shah Mohammad Reza Shan (although little changed in terms of corruption). Furthermore, while the Pahlavis were the rulers of Iran, the USSR maintained a powerful military prescence and did not leave until shortly after World War 2.

**Iran in the 20th century:**
Iran has been through a turbulent time in this past century, partly due to world events, and partly due to events in its own past. Shortly after World War 2, Iran joined the dozens of nations that were attempting to gain their independence, a massive global anti-colonial movement. Though Iran did not ever lose complete sovereignity, it was heavily exploited, especially after the discovery of oil. Pro-democracy movements began once again, and this time a new leader, a Prime Minister, was installed, starting in 1947. Unfortunately, Iran's chronic corruption served as a major obstacle, and for various reasons, when Mohammed Mosaddeq came to the role in 1951, the country had seen six prime ministers come and go in less than four years. Mosaddeq attempted to make many new reforms, including the nationalization of Iran's oil industry, taking over the service performed by the British Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Angered, the British took revenge by inciting a revolt against Mosaddeq, and the Americans replaced him with an autocracy, led by Mohammed Reza Shan's son. The new shah would lead until the Islamic Revolution of 1979, an event brought about by his many oppressive and corrupt laws, including the infamous white revolution. The ousting of the shah would permanently cause a negative view of the western world in Iran, and would finally reunite the religious and political branches under one banner; the Islamic Republic of Iran.

**21st century Iran; of things to come:**
What will happen to Iran in the 21st century is nothing short of a mystery. Right now, the theocratic government of Iran faces its worst enemy: western influence. New ideas and an extremely vast and impressionable global generation of youths are driving the Islamic Republic towards the path of democracy, sweeping aside centuries old doctrines of authoritarianism and religious dominance. The quesiton is no longer if, but when. And when it does happen, will it be bloodless, or will the world be forced to view, as it often has, a bloody and horrifying civil war? Looking optimistically however, it seems that Iran will soon usher in a new age of democracy, and its people will finally have the stability and prosperity they deserve. A satirical representation of Iran's authoritarianism and unwillingness to become a democracy. Additional Sources: 1. www.mideastweb.org/**iranhistory**.htm 2. www.parstimes.com/**Iran**_**history**.html 3. www.**iran**chamber.com/**history**/**islamic**.../**islamic**_conquest.php 4. https://www.**cia**.gov/library/publications/the-world-**factbook**/ 5. www.uga.edu/**islam**/**history**.html

__**General Information:**__ Cleavages in Iranian Society: Civil Society: Political Participation:
 * Political Culture (JCN)**
 * Religion
 * Nearly 90% are Shiite, nearly 10% are Sunni, 1% are a combination of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrian, and Baha'i
 * Religious minorities are protected by their constitution, but many are still persecuted
 * Ethnicity
 * 51% are Persian, speaking Persian (Farsi), 24% are Azeri, 8% are Gilaki and Mazandarani, 7% are Kurds, 3% are Arabi
 * Religious cleavages are reinforced by ethnicity
 * Social Class
 * Peasantry and lower middle class are sources of support for the regime
 * Middle and upper-class people are largely secularized, and tend to be critical of clerics
 * Reformers v. conservatives
 * Conservatives want to keep the regime as it is, under the control of clerics and sharia law
 * Reformers want more secularization and democracy
 * Tehran spring
 * a period of cautious political liberalization under the presidency of Muhammad Khatami (1997-2005)
 * Since Mahmoud Ahmadinejad became president in 2005, the government has closed down newpapers, banned and censored books and websites, and no longer tolerates peaceful demonstrations
 * Protests and demonstrations
 * 1999 - protests erupted in universities when the government shut down a reformist newspaper
 * 2002 - similar demonstrations erupted over a death sentence for an academic
 * 2003 - mass protests over the privatization of the university system
 * Government has cracked down on protests since 2005, when Ahmadinejad became president

__**Some Political Trends:**__ Theocracy vs. Democracy




 * Iran contains elements of both an authoritarian theocracy and democracy. For example, the Majles is popularly elected, but the Supreme Leader, who holds more power than any other part of the government, is not. The Guardian Council is also not popularly elected, and exists to uphold sharia law. In this way, it has the power to remove from races many reformist candidates.

link: [|New York Times - "Cleric Wields Religion to Challenge Iran’s Theocracy"]  Reformists vs. Conservatives
 * This article describes how the cleric Ayatollah Montazeri is using religion to question the legitimacy of the Iranian government. The article makes the point that although the vast majority of criticisms of the government come from the democratic point of view, Montazeri is criticizing it from the religious point of view. This is significant because it shows how democracy and religion are both important aspects of the government.

link: [|Iran Reformists Question Conservative Gains]  Freedom of the Press link: [|Freedom of the Press - Iran]
 * The conflicts between reformers and conservatives often arise from conflicts between theocracy and democracy
 * Conservatives
 * Uphold the principles of the regime as it was created in 1979
 * Uphold strict sharia law, support the clerics, and think that political and religious decisions are one in the same
 * Wary of western influence
 * Reformists
 * Think that the political system is in need of major reform
 * Less wary of western influence
 * Often support the idea that political leaders do not need to be clerics
 * This article is about the response of the reformists to the conservative victory of the presidency in 2009. It talks about how the reformists accused the conservatives of irregularities in counting the votes. The anger and frustration of the reformists towards the conservatives shows how deep the rift is between the two in Iran.
 * Over 20 newspapers were shut down after the 1979 revolution
 * 1981 - the Majles passed a law making it a criminal offense to use "pen and speech" against the government
 * Rafsanjani government permitted some debate in the press on controversial issues during the 1990s
 * Khatami administration tried to establish an independent press
 * 60 pro-reform papers were shut down by 2002
 * This article rates the press in Iran as "not free" and gives its total score an 85 out of 100. It describes how the government is cracking down on many reformist papers. They are especially hard on coverage of women's rights issues, anti-government demonstrations, the ailing economy, and the development of nuclear technology. Iran's constitution provides very limited protection of the press.